For instance, a false news story may quote a fake expert, use emotional language, or propose a conspiracy theory in order to manipulate readers. J Commun 65(4):619638, Bovet A, Makse HA (2019) Influence of fake news in Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election. It can adopt many different forms like conspiracy theories, fake news, junk science, or rumors among others. 58): First differences of the multinominal logit modelReadability. Inform Process Manag 56(5):18491864, Beheshti Z, Nejadansari D, Barati H (2020) The relationship between emotional intelligence, Lexical diversity and the syntactic complexity of EFL Learners written productions. 3, 2014). For example, how is the fingerprints of misinformation evolving over time? Morality plays a role in identifying categories by augmenting their probabilities of being classified as factual news, rumors, hate speech or junk science as the appeal to morality decreases; and on the contrary, it leads to higher probabilities of being classified as fake news clickbait or conspiracy theories as the appeal to morality in a given text increases. Since it is impossible to check everything that is being shared on social media, fact-checkers focus on content that has already become viral (usually, with information provided from social media platforms in the form of rankings). J Exp Psychol Gen 145(3):366375, Effron DA, Raj M (2020) Misinformation and morality: encountering fake-news headlines makes them seem less unethical to publish and share. Regarding first differences, one can see that increasing the readability score from 6.78 to 22 has no effect on the probabilities of content being classified as factual news (p=0.000, CI=[0.003, 0.003]), decrease by 6.44% the probabilities of being clickbait (CI=[0.074, 0.056]), a decrease of 5.16% for conspiracy theories (CI=[0.061, 0.042]), or a decrease of 3.47% in rumors (CI=[0.044, 0.026]); remarkably, increasing the readability translates into a decrease of 35% of being classified as fake news (CI=[0.361, 0.344]). For decades, the fossil fuel industry has poured millions of dollars into spreading climate disinformation[1] online and offline to drive public polarization and stall action on the climate crisis. How could we improve it? 274277, Horberg EJ, Oveis C, Keltner D (2011) Emotions as moral amplifiers: An appraisal tendency approach to the influences of distinct emotions upon moral judgment. For example, since my results indicate that misinformation is more emotional, media literacy efforts should include specific strategies to identify and raise awareness of highly emotional content. Dont they know how contagious this virus is? The problem with the truth is that it lies in the eye of the beholder and even those that have evidence arent always believed. Sources that entirely fabricate information, disseminate deceptive content, or grossly distort actual news reports. J Lang Soc Psychol 33(4):348377, McLaughlin T (2018) How whatsapp fuels fake news and violence in India. The results are the following (Figs. In contrast, using the results provided in this paper, these platforms may use the same system without the need to explicitly identify the source as misleading and recommending related stories based on the assessment of the readability, perplexity, emotionality, and morality levels of the content being shared. Hidden Colors 1- The Untold Histroy of People of Colour around the Globe. PsycNET. The Hidden Colors Documentary is all about the hidden history of those that come from aboriginal, More, and African descent. Get tickets to our next game, hours and locations for our libraries and museums, and information about your next career move. I employ a multinominal logistic regression model with K classes using a neural network with K outputs and the negative conditional log-likelihood (Venables & Ripley, 2002). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 117(27):1553615545, Hakak S, Alazab M, Khan S, Gadekallu TR, Maddikunta PKR, Khan WZ (2021) An ensemble machine learning approach through effective feature extraction to classify fake news. Therefore, content that appeals to what individuals think is moral (or not moral), is likely to be more viral (Brady et al., 2020), especially in conjunction with negative emotions that challenge their social identity (Brady et al., 2017; Horberget al., 2011). His studies also show that people are more likely to accept misinformation as fact if its easy to hear or read (Consciousness and Cognition, Vol. Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. 20042006 History We also found that if we reengage people following the initial intervention, we can boost their response so that the inoculation lasts longer, van der Linden says. Analysts discuss why some people ignore or reject the medical experts and science of COVID. For far too long people of African descent have been treated horribly and without as much respect as they deserve. To do so, researchers could look at common characteristics and relationships between sources for each category. An excerpt from the new book Demagogue: The Life and Long Shadow of Senator Joe McCarthy by Larry Tye. On the side of more positive language, I find rumors (sentiment=0.86, [CI=0.65, 1.08]) and junk science (sentiment=2.52, [CI=2.31, 2.72]). Moreover, beyond sentiment, there are other measures for evocation to emotions: morality. 109114. S3, 2020). The dictionary contains 411 words like abomination, demon, honor, infidelity, patriot or wicked. Such falsehoods, which research shows have influenced attitudes and behaviors around protective measures such as mask-wearing, are an ongoing hurdle as countries around the world struggle to get the virus under control. 2 people found this helpful. Psychol Sci 28(11):15311546, Choudhary A, Arora A (2021) Linguistic feature based learning model for fake news detection and classification. Finally, the most similar categories are conspiracy theories and fake news (height=1.84). HIDDEN COLORS- correcting the misinformation PT 1 - YouTube Tariq had no bad intent and meant no harm. 15. In this multinominal logistic regression model, the probability of each level j of Y is calculated with the following formula (Garca-Portugs, 2021): for j=1,,J1j=1,,J1 and (for the reference level J=factual news): As a generalization of a logistic model, it can be interpreted in similar terms if we take the quotient between (A.1) and (A.2): for j=1,,J1j=1,,J1. With the model I provided and the resulting outcomes, one can inform more complex models to boost peoples abilities to identify misinformation. This film discusses some of the reasons the contributions of African and aboriginal people have been left out of the pages of history. Harvard expert Fran Berman advocates for prioritizing public interest over profit with tech innovation and social and regulatory controls. J Comp Policy Anal Res Pract 23(1):4150, DAlessandro DM, Kingsley P, Johnson-West J (2001) The readability of pediatric patient education materials on the world wide web. PLoS ONE 12(9):117, Article Phys A: Stat Mech Appl 170177. For example, the information manipulation theory (McCornack et al., 2014) proposes that misinformation is expressed differently in terms of writing style. In other words, I employ a set of mechanics that are easily explainable in human terms. Lewandowsky, S., et al., 2020, Coronavirus misinformation: Quantifying sources and themes in the COVID-19 infodemic The notion of media literacy is based on the skills and competencies needed to successfully navigate a complex ecosystem (Eshet & Eshet, 2004; Guess et al., 2020). Fact-Checking Network (IFCN), PolitiFact and Snopes. These findings set the stage for later work that tied belief in misinformation to a failure to reflect carefully on material.3. Technol Soc 13:259278, Swabey L, Nicodemus B, Taylor MM, Gile D (2016) Lexical decisions and related cognitive issues in spoken and signed language interpreting. This model allows not only researchers but also practitioners and non-technical audiences to understand, and potentially adopt the model. This is not an optical illusion, but rather color adaptation of the eye. Psychologists say that countering misinformation will ultimately require stronger partnerships with social media platforms, which can help disseminate tools such as Go Viral! and provide internal data to researchers studying fake news. Fake news, fast and slow: deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines. Cabinet Office, the WHO, and the United Nations, the game has already reached thousands of people. 10 Things You Didnt Know about the Hidden Colors Documentary, 6 Secret Codes for Hidden Christmas Movies on Netflix, Beauty And The Beast To Be First Disney Movie Featuring Openly Gay Character. Misinformation can be spread without ill intent, while . More specifically, I employ the AFINN lexicon developed by Finn rup Nielsen (Nielsen, 2011) one of the most used lexicons for sentiment analysis (Akhtar et al., 2020; Chakraborty et al., 2020; Hee et al., 2018; Ragini et al., 2018). Inauguration events for Claudine Gay, Harvards 30th president, will take place on September 29 in Tercentenary Theatre. Researchers also observed that beliefs persist even after misinformation is corrected and began to test interventions for resisting persuasion.2, 1990s2000s Next, I complement the results with predicted probabilities based on simulations for each category in four scenarios corresponding to the four variables using the previous multinominal logistic regression model. Exp Syst Appl 37(9):61826191, Ragini JR, Anand PMR, Bhaskar V (2018) Big data analytics for disaster response and recovery through sentiment analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 116(16):76767683, de Souza JV, Gomes J, Souza Filho FMde, Oliveira Julio AMde, de Souza JF (2020) A systematic mapping on automatic classification of fake news in social media. The story found a huge audience in the United States. To address this issue, I propose to explore what I call the fingerprints of disinformation. Disinformation: The creation and distribution of intentionally false information, usually for political ends (scams, hoaxes, forgeries). For example, rumors split from hate speech, conspiracy theories and fake news at height=6.68. 24, No. Media: Misinformation and Sensationalism. Are they real? Six degrees of manipulationimpersonation, conspiracy, emotion, polarization, discrediting, and trollingare used to spread misinformation and disinformation, according to Sander van der Linden, PhD, a professor of social psychology in society at the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom and director of the Cambridge Social Decision-Making Lab, and his colleagues. I am the first documented human being with pentrachromatic vision. In particular, the definitions for each category are: Sources that provide generally credible content, but use exaggerated, misleading, or questionable headlines, social media descriptions, and/or images. Learn to decode the intricate system of symbols that are a part of everyday life -- from advertising messages to traffic signs. Included Items. Finally, the model that is easily understandable in daily language (the explainability challenge), facilitating its adoption by technical and, specially, non-technical audiences. An analysis of misinformation from five samples across the United States, Europe, and Mexico showed that substantial portions of each populationanywhere from 15% to 37%believed misinformation about COVID-19 in April and May 2020, representing what the authors call a major threat to public health. People who were more susceptible to misinformation were less likely to report complying with public health recommendations and less likely to say theyd get vaccinated (Royal Society Open Science, Vol. Key strategies include debunking, preemptive inoculation, and nudges to assess the accuracy of material.5. Advance Hidden Colors 5 DVD. Websites ending in .edu are for registered universities or colleges, while official Government of Canada websites include the following suffixes: .gc.ca; .gc/en; .gc/fr; .ourcommons.ca; .canada.ca; .parl.ca. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, Ju Y, Back KJ, Choi Y, Lee JS (2019) Exploring Airbnb service quality attributes and their asymmetric effects on customer satisfaction. Sebastian Krgel, Andreas Ostermaier & Matthias Uhl, Charlotte Caucheteux, Alexandre Gramfort & Jean-Rmi King, Joshua Conrad Jackson, Danica Dillion, Kurt Gray, Ullrich K. H. Ecker, Stephan Lewandowsky, Michelle A. Amazeen, William J. Brady, Killian L. McLoughlin, M. J. Crockett, Claire E. Robertson, Nicolas Prllochs, Stefan Feuerriegel, Jess Hohenstein, Rene F. Kizilcec, Malte F. Jung, Morgane Laouenan, Palaash Bhargava, Etienne Wasmer, Bruno Verschuere, Chu-Chien Lin, Ewout Meijer, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications Among others, these results show that fake news and conspiracy theories are, on average, 8% simpler in terms of readability and 18% simpler in terms of perplexity, and 18% more reliant on negative emotions and 45% more appealing to morality than factual news. In contrast, for content with high appeal to morality (morality=13.75), the probabilities per category are: factual (p=0.003, CI=[0.003, 0.004)], clickbait (p=0.158, CI=[0.150, 0.166]), conspiracy theories (p=0.182, CI=[0.174, 0.191]), fake news (p=0.221, CI=[0.212, 0.230]), hate speech (p=0.151, CI=[0.144, 0.158]), junk science (p=0.165, CI=[0.158, 0.171]) and rumor (p=0.119, CI=[0.112, 0.125)]. PubMed Central Proceedings-IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. 4, 2020 ). Moreover, the fact that I include several misinformation categories is important because most of the existing research has a strong emphasis on distinguishing between fake news and factual news (de Souza et al., 2020; Helmstetter & Paulheim, 2018; Masciari et al., 2020; Zervopoulos et al., 2020). A lover of great stories and epic tales, Tom is a fan of old and new-school ideas. 5.0 . This measure estimates the educational level that is needed to understand a given text. Intercult Commun Stud XVI: 3, Neuman WR, Just MR, Crigler AN (1992) Common knowledge: News and the construction of political meaning. Carrasco-Farr, C. The fingerprints of misinformation: how deceptive content differs from reliable sources in terms of cognitive effort and appeal to emotions. More specifically, the novelty and benefits of the paper are fourfold: Volume benefits: A solution must be scalable. If its true, other media outlets will likely be covering it. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Nielsen F (2011) A new ANEW: evaluation of a word list for sentiment analysis in microblogs. Simply put, the longer a sentence or word is, the more complex it is to read. Hard to compare. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 155(7):807812, De Bruin WB, Granger Morgan M (2019) Reflections on an interdisciplinary collaboration to inform public understanding of climate change, mitigation, and impacts. But even die-hard Harvard buffs are not likely to know all of these Harvard firsts and historical snippets. Hidden Colors is a documentary about the real and untold history of people of color around the globe. Step 2: About Us Analysis. Some of the prominent social media platforms have intended to stop the proliferation of misinformation with different features like relying on users reporting mechanisms (Chan et al., 2017; Lewandowsky et al., 2012) or using fact-checkers to analyze content that already went viral through the network (Chung & Kim, 2021; Tambuscio et al., 2018; Tambuscio et al., 2015). 8, 2020). When stories shared online dont clearly show the source, satire can be mistaken for real news. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168019848554, Appelman A, Sundar SS (2016) Measuring message credibility: construction and validation of an exclusive scale. J Exp Psychol Gen 149:118, Bai X (2011) Predicting consumer sentiments from online text. After calculating the factual and misinformation categories profiles, I calculate similarities among them through clustering analysis. The third film in the series, Hidden Colors 3: The Rules of Racism, was released on June 26, 2014. The advance of computers into all aspects of our lives and the rising role of the Internet have led In other words, the results should be interpreted on the aggregated or average effect, and not in the specific source effect. This issue of the Shorenstein Centers Misinformation Review explores the world of propaganda, from persuasion campaigns to commercial media. One is to debunk incorrect information after it has spread. Controlling the spread of misinformation. The results show that a one-unit increase in the readability score is associated with a decrease in the log odds of categorizing content in the clickbait (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{readability}},\,{\mathrm{clickbait}}} = - 0.06\), p<0.001) conspiracy theories (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{readability}},\,{\mathrm{conspiracy}}} = - 0.05\), p<0.001), fake news (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{readability}},\,{\mathrm{fake}}\,{\mathrm{news}}} = - 0.21\), p<0.001), and rumor (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{readability}},\,{\mathrm{rumor}}} = - 0.04\), p<0.001) categories. This resulted in the final dataset consisting of 92,112 articles with the following distribution by type: clickbait (12,955 articles), conspiracy theories (15,493 articles), fake news (16,158 articles), hate speech (15,353 articles), junk science (16,252 articles), factual news (1743 articles) and rumors (14,158 articles). For example, emotions can be used as a strategy to convey a particular point of view when the appropriate methods are less likely to yield the desired conclusion (Kunda, 1990). 17), Graham J, Haidt J, Nosek BA (2009) Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Available at https://bookdown.org/egarpor/PM-UC3M/, Garrett RK, Weeks BE (2017) Epistemic beliefs role in promoting misperceptions and conspiracist ideation. The older history textbooks were like syringes that injected the toxin of white supremacy into the mind of many generations of Americans, says historian Donald Yacovone, an associate at the Hutchins Center for African & African American Research. These results indicate that there are significant differences between content characteristics from factual sources and misinformation content in the form of clickbait, conspiracy theories, fake news, hate speech, junk science and rumors. BMJ 370 (pp. Universitat Ramon LlullESADE Business School, Barcelona, Spain, You can also search for this author in One study documents hundreds of deaths and thousands of hospitalizations around the world associated with COVID-19 misinformation, including rumors, conspiracy theories, and stigmas (Islam, M. S., et al., The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Vol. With Sabir Bey, Booker T. Coleman, Umar Johnson, Tariq Nasheed. First, they contribute to diminish the problem of scalability in misinformation detection (the volume challenge), by providing a set of features that can differentiate between misinformation and factual content without human intervention. :), Trying to fully understand the world of bodybuilding is tough at first, especially since understanding, With just a few weeks until the Christmas holidays, now is a good time to, With a title likeDemon House, it's easy to think that this documentary on the Ammons. In other words, the easier to read a text is, the more likely it pertains to the clickbait, conspiracy theories, fake news, or rumor categories. 2Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). There is a great deal of information that has to be brought to bear and a lot of it needs to be discussed in depth so breaking it into four parts was kind of necessary, otherwise they might not have gotten in everything they wanted. The fourth film in the series, Hidden Colors 4: The Religion of White Supremacy was successfully funded on Kickstarter in March . 7, No. 4 one can see the results of the multinominal logistic regression model with each column comparing the corresponding misinformation category to the baseline (factual news). In Proceedings of the eighth ACM international conference on web search and data mining (pp. ISSN 2662-9992 (online), The fingerprints of misinformation: how deceptive content differs from reliable sources in terms of cognitive effort and appeal to emotions, humanities and social sciences communications, $${\mathrm{Flesch.Kincaid}}\,{\mathrm{score}}\left( {{\mathrm{FK}}} \right) = 0.39 \ast \left( {\frac{{n_w}}{{n_{st}}}} \right) + 11.8 \ast \frac{{n_{sy}}}{{n_w}} - 15.59$$, $$H = - \mathop {\sum }\limits_x p\left( {{x}} \right){\mathrm{log}}_2\,q\left( x \right)$$, $${\mathrm{Perplexity}}\left( M \right) = \tau ^{ - \mathop {\sum }\limits_x p\left( {{{\mathrm{x}}}} \right)\,{\mathrm{log}}_2\,q\left( x \right)} = 2^H$$, $${Morality}_i\left( M \right) = \frac{{{mor}_i}}{{n_{w,i}}} \ast \frac{{{neg}_i}}{{n_{w,i}}}$$, $$d_{AB} = \sqrt {\mathop {\sum}\nolimits_{i = 1}^n {\left( {e_{Ai} - e_{Bi}} \right)^2} }$$, $$d_{AB} = \frac{{\mathop {\sum }\nolimits_{{{a}} \in {{A}},\,{{b}} \in {{B}}} d\left( {a,b} \right)}}{{\left| A \right| \ast \left| B \right|}}$$, $$W\left( {C_k} \right) = \mathop {\sum }\limits_{x_i \in C_k} \left( {x_i - \mu _k} \right)^2$$, $${\mathrm{tot.withiness}} = \mathop {\sum }\limits_{k = 1}^k W\left( {C_k} \right) = \mathop {\sum }\limits_{k = 1}^k \mathop {\sum }\limits_{x_i \in C_k} \left( {x_i - \mu _k} \right)^2$$, $${\mathrm{minimize}}\left( {\mathop {\sum }\limits_{k = 1}^k W\left( {C_k} \right)} \right)$$, $$p_j\left( x \right): = \frac{{{\Bbb P}\left[ {Y = j\left| {X_1} \right. Though research directly tying misinformation to behavior is still limited, exposure to fake news does have real-world consequences. pp. If material is not included in the articles Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Winchea. Although there is little research on how moral content contributes to online virality (Rathje et al., 2021), the mechanism is grounded in social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and self-categorization theory (Turner et al., 1987) and lies in the idea that group identities are hyper salient on social media (Brady et al., 2017) because they act as a form of self-conscious identity representation (Kraft et al., 2020; van Dijck, 2013). This one seems best to leave to the scholars to argue on since it could be a very touchy subject. For any given text, there is a probability p for each word to appear. These results show that the junk science and fake news categories are both the most sensible to changes in the readability score in opposite directions: increasing the readability score significantly increases the probability of being categorized as junk science while decreasing it significantly increases the probability of a given content being categorized as fake news. Joan Donovan, research director of the Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics, and Public Policy, explains: Misinformation: Spreading false information (rumors, insults, and pranks). The result is a full probability distribution that I use to compute the average expected value and the confidence intervals. Farrar, Straus and Giroux; Reber, R., & Schwarz, N., Effects of perceptual fluency on judgments of truth. The negative sign ensures that the result is always positive or zero. Hum Commun Res 47(1):124, Cinelli M, Quattrociocchi W, Galeazzi A, Valensise CM, Brugnoli E, Schmidt AL, Scala A (2020) The COVID-19 social media infodemic. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3). The Documentary look like an amateur film with a lot of misinformation and disinformation. IEEE Comput Intell Magaz 15(1):6475, Article The interpretation is as follows: If perplexity equals 5, it means that the next word in a text can be predicted with an accuracy of 1-in-5 (or 20%, on average). many people to call this the Information Age. Basil Blackwell, van Dijck J (2013) You have one identity: performing the self on Facebook and LinkedIn. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101(suppl 1):52285235, Grinberg N, Joseph K, Friedland L, Swire-Thompson B, Lazer D (2019) Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. In, Tattrie, Jon. Springer, New York, Vosoughi S, Roy D, Aral S (2018) The spread of true and false news online. John Carpenter Remakes Christine Into an Amazing 4-Minute Short, Avatar: The Last Airbender: Agni Kai Fan Film, Star Wars Actor Jake Lloyd Has Paranoid Schizophrenia. The difference between predicted and expected values is subtle but important. Psychological research looks at individual differences in demographic, personality, and other traits of those who are more likely to believe misinformation and conspiracy theories, with the ultimate goal of characterizing the underlying processes that lead people to accept such claims. The Women in Data Science looks at what is needed to prevent truth from manipulation? Given the predictors \(X_1, \ldots ,X_pX_1, \ldots ,X_p\). If so, platforms and fact-checkers can complement their rankings based on virality with rankings based on the probability of a content being non-factual. There are a lot of theories that are bound to be questioned and even attacked in this documentary but there are also key points of interest as well that would explain how those of color could find themselves in other parts of the world and have knowledge of those areas. As inaccurate information is spread at an unprecedented scale and speed online, we rediscover a very old truth: information can be manipulated. And who we are is not a historical process, but a people, as alive today as we ever were. A short guide to the history of fake news and disinformation.